Canola Meal Feed Guide for Aquaculture

Canola meal is a palatable source of protein for aqua diets. In some older studies as well as feeding experiments involving rapeseed meal, palatability was sometimes reduced due to the bitterness imparted by glucosinolates. As Chapter 2 shows, levels of glucosinolates in canola meal are now quite low. In clear contrast to older studies, soluble canola protein concentrate has successfully been used as an attractant for diets in which fish meal concentrations have been reduced (Hill et al., 2013). Hill et al. (2013) reported that the inclusion of 1% soluble canola protein concentrate in diets fed to sunshine bass significantly increased feed intake and weight gain.

Rather than palatability, intake of canola meal is often limited by the nutrient requirements of the species for which the feeds are being formulated. For example, carnivorous fish have very high protein requirements, and a low tolerance for carbohydrates. Omnivorous species on the other hand have a greater tolerance for carbohydrate.

Table 1. Average canola meal inclusion levels in diets of carnivorous fish with no compromise in performance over the standard diet

*Highest levels tested
¹Thiessen et al., 2003; Thiessen et al., 2004; Yigit et al., 2012; Collins et al, 2012; Collins et al., 2013.
²Burr et al., 2013; Collins, et al., 2013.
³Ngo et al., 2016.
⁴Lanari and D’Agaro, 2005.
⁵Cheng et al., 2010
⁶Erdogan and Olmez, 2009.
⁷Galdioli et al., 2001; Soares et al., 2000.
⁸Webster et al., 2000

As Table 1 shows, inclusion levels may be limited to 30% or less for carnivorous species, but inclusions have been demonstrated to be considerably greater for a number of commercially important omnivorous species (Table 2).

Table 2. Average canola meal inclusion levels in diets of omnivorous fish with no compromise in performance over the standard diet

*Highest levels tested
¹Glencross et al., 2004.
²Booth and Allan, 2003.
³Galdioli et al., 2002.
⁴Iqbal et al., 2015; Umer and Ali, 2009; Parveen et al., 2012; Umer et al., 2011.
⁵Zhou et al., 2018.
⁶Yigit and Olmez, 2009; Zhou and Yue, 2010; Luo et al, 2012; Mohammadi et al., 2016; Fangfang et al., 2014; Soares et al., 2001.
⁷Huang et al., 2012.
⁸Veiverberg et al., 2010; Jiang et al., 2016.
⁹Viegas et al, 2008.
¹⁰Parveen et al., 2012.
¹¹Van Minh et al., 2013

Protein-to-energy ratios in fish diets are high compared to birds and mammals, and thus, aqua diets are typically higher in crude protein than pig or poultry diets. For example, salmonid diets typically contain more than 40% crude protein. Since canola meal contains less than 40% crude protein as fed, this limits the feasible inclusion rate of canola meal to below 20% when formulating practical diets for carnivorous species like salmonids. However, in omnivorous or herbivorous fish, such as carp and tilapia, dietary crude protein requirements are considerably lower, and this limitation does not apply.

The digestibility of dry matter (Tables 3 and 4) and energy (Tables 5 and 6) in canola meal is highly variable, due to the varied digestive systems of fish species farmed around the world. As well, processing systems used in the manufacturing of vegetable protein sources influence the extent of digestibility, and these have varied widely from study to study.

As with swine and poultry, the method of formulation impacts the nutritive worth and feeding value of canola meal. The energy value will also vary somewhat due to the amount of lipid that is present in the meal. NRC (2011) lists apparent digestibility of energy in rapeseed meal at 76% for rainbow trout, 57% for Nile tilapia and 83% for cobia. Burel et al. (2000) determined that the digestibility of rapeseed meal by rainbow trout was 69% for solvent-extracted meal, and 89% for post-extraction heat-treated meal. Allan et al. (2000) found that the digestibility of energy in solvent-extracted and expeller canola meal was 58.1% and 58.6%, respectively, for silver perch.

Fibre is not digested in monogastric animals to any appreciable extent, and this applies to aquaculture species as well. Plant fibre can be divided into two categories: soluble fibre (oligosaccharides) that increases intestinal viscosity and insoluble fibre that increases bulk. Canola meal contains approximately half as much soluble fibre as soybean meal (Mejicanos et al., 2016). Modest amounts of insoluble fibre can improve transit time and feed intake, but large amounts result in too much bulk, depending upon the species of fish at hand. Removal of the fibre fraction of canola meal could enhance its value in nutrient-dense aqua feeds, thus increasing the nutrient density of the meal.

Table 3. Studies investigating apparent dry matter digestibility (%) of canola meal by marine fish since 2000

*Value may be in error, as digestibility of protein alone would exceed 30% of the dry matter
¹1Mwachireya et al., 2000; Burel et al., 2000; Dalsgaard et al., 2012.
²Burel et al., 2000; Dalsgaard et al., 2012.
³Burr et al., 2011.
⁴Burel et al., 2000.
⁵Ngo et al., 2015.
⁶Igbal et al., 2015.
⁷Wu et al., 2006.
⁸Zhou et al., 2004.
⁹Tibbets et al, 2006.
¹⁰Rodrigues Olim, 2012.
¹¹Tibbetts et al., 2004.
¹²Glencross et al., 2004a.

Table 4. Studies investigating apparent dry matter digestibility (%) of canola meal by freshwater fish since 2000

*Value may be in error, as digestibility of protein alone would exceed 30% of the dry matter
¹Allan et al., 2000.
²Hussain et al., 2015.
³Borgeson et al., 2006.

Table 5. Studies investigating apparent energy digestibility (%) of canola meal by carnivorous fish since 2000

¹Mwachireya et al., 2000; Burel et al., 2000; Thiessen et al., 2004; Cheng and Hardy, 2002.
²Burr et al., 2011.
³Burr et al., 2011.
⁴Burel et al., 2000.
⁵Ngo et al., 2015.
⁶Glencross et al., 2004a.
⁷Lanari and D’Agaro, 2005.
⁸Wu et al., 2006.
⁹Zhou et al., 2004.
¹⁰Tibbets et al, 2006.
¹¹Rodrigues Olim, 2012.
¹²Tibbetts et al., 2004.
¹³Glencross et al., 2004a.

Table 6. Studies investigating apparent energy digestibility (%) of canola meal by omnivorous fish since 2000

¹Allan et al., 2000.
²Hussain et al., 2015.
³Borgeson et al., 2006.

The digestibility of protein from canola meal is high for most fish species. NRC (2011) lists the apparent digestibility of protein in rapeseed meal for the following species: 91% for rainbow trout, 85% for Nile/ blue tilapia and 89% for cobia. Hajen et al. (1993) determined that the digestibility of canola meal protein by chinook salmon was 85%, which was higher than the digestibility of soybean meal (77%), and approximately the same as the digestibility of soy protein isolate (84%). In some species, salmonids in particular, the protein in canola meal is beneficial, but the presence of fibre limits the amount that can be included in formulations. Results from studies published since 2000 are provided in Tables 7 and 8 for carnivorous and omnivorous species.

Table 7. Studies investigating apparent protein digestibility (%) of canola meal in carnivorous fish since 2000

¹Mwachireya et al., 2000; Burel et al., 2000; Dalsgaard et al., 2012; Gaylord et al., 2008; Gaylord et al., 2010; Thiessen et al., 2004; Cheng and Hardy, 2002.
²Burr et al., 2011.
³Burr et al., 2011.
⁴Burel et al., 2000.
⁵Lanari and D’Agaro, 2005.
⁶Ngo et al., 2015.
⁷Wu et al., 2006.
⁸Zhou et al., 2004.
⁹Rodrigues Olim, 2012.
¹⁰Erdogan and Olmez, 2010.
¹¹Tibbets et al, 2006.

Table 8. Studies investigating apparent protein digestibility (%) of canola meal in omnivorous fish since 2000

¹Tibbetts et al., 2004.
²Glencross et al., 2004a.
³Allan et al., 2000.
⁴Hussain et al, 2015.
⁵Borgeson et al., 2006

The amino acid balance of canola protein is the best of the commercial vegetable protein sources currently available. As Table 9 shows, the essential amino acid index value for canola meal is superior to that of soybean meal, and on par with fish meal (Burel and Kaushik, 2008). Drew (2004) noted that the amino acid profile of canola protein could be compared to minced beef. With the use of protein efficiency ratio (PER; or weight gain per gram of protein fed) as a measure, canola protein has a PER of 3.29 compared to 1.60 for soybean meal and 3.13 for casein (Drew, 2009).

Table 9. Essential amino acid index (EAAI) for several protein sources used in aquaculture¹

¹Burel and Kaushik, 2008

Canola meal provides a rich source of phosphorus, although much of the phosphorus is in the form of phytic acid, which is not available to most farm reared fish. Because of this, many aqua diets are formulated to contain phytase (NRC, 2011), the enzyme necessary to cleave phosphorus from phytic acid and improve the availability of phosphorus. Research also showed that phytase increases the availability of other minerals, including calcium, magnesium and manganese (Cheng and Hardy, 2002; Vandenberg et al., 2011; Hussain et al., 2015), reducing the need for supplementation of these minerals. Recent research by Habib et al. (2018) showed that citric acid, like phytase, is beneficial in releasing minerals from phytic acid.

Canola meal contains small amounts of heat-labile (glucosinolates) and heat-stable (phytic acid, phenolic compounds, tannins, saponins and fibre) anti-nutritional factors (Chapter 2). Glucosinolates appear to be better tolerated by many fish species, carp for example, than by swine and poultry. Canadian canola meal currently contains very limited amounts of remaining glucosinolates (3.2 μmol/g). Several publications have identified upper limits of inclusion of glucosinolates in the diet for fish. The most conservative limit, set at 1.4 μmol/g of diet for trout, would still allow for a relatively high inclusion of canola meal (40%).

Carbohydrates may be considered anti-nutritional for some species and opens the possibility of including carbohydrates in feed formulations. The addition of carbohydrase enzymes in aqua diets has been just briefly studied. In 1997, Buchanan, et al. demonstrated that the addition of a carbohydrase enzyme included in a diet containing canola meal fed to black tiger prawns increased digestibility and growth.

While the presence of anti-nutritional factors in canola requires consideration for its use in some aquaculture diets, canola protein and oil also has significant advantages over the use of fish meal and fish oil, in that canola meal is lower in polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) as well as dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCB). When fish meal and fish oil were completely replaced with canola protein concentrate and canola oil, the levels of PCDD/F and PCBs were significantly reduced in prepared diets (4.06 vs. 0.73 pg/g, as-is basis) and in the fillets (1.10 vs. 0.12 pg/g, as-is basis) of fish fed these diets during a six-month growth trial (Drew, et al., 2007). According to the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Food, the recommended maximum human intake of organochlorine contaminant is 14 pg/kg body weight/ week. Based on these levels, a 50-kg person could safely consume 640 g per week of trout fed the fish meal–and-oil diet, compared to 5,880 g per week of the trout fed the canola protein and oil diet. This suggests that decreasing the level of fish meal and oil present in aqua feeds by the use of canola oil and meal could significantly impact the safety of farmed fish and increase consumer acceptance of these products.

Several experiments have been conducted to evaluate canola protein concentrate. Canola meal may be converted into canola protein concentrate (CPC) by aqueous extraction of protein (Burr et al., 2013; Thiessen et al., 2004). CPC contains approximately the same crude protein concentration as fish meal, with a better amino acid profile than corn gluten meal and soybean meal. Collins et al (2012) determined that CPC had no negative effects on growth of rainbow trout when compared to fish meal.

Extrusion of diets for fish is common. Results are mixed for the effects of extrusion on the digestibility of canola meal. Burel et al. (2000) determined that extruded rapeseed meal had no effect on dry matter or protein digestibility for rainbow trout but improved digestibility of dry matter and protein for turbot, relative to solvent extracted meal. Dry matter digestibility was reduced with extrusion when fed to silver perch. Satoh et al. (1998) determined that extrusion increased digestibility for Chinook salmon. Extrusion conditions may need to be determined by species.

Canola meal is a common feed ingredient in salmon and trout diets, although inclusion is limited due to several factors, mainly the high protein requirements of salmonids and the presence of heat-stable anti-nutritional factors. Collins et al. (2013) completed a metaanalysis of various vegetable protein ingredients fed to salmonids to determine impact of inclusion rate. Thirty data points from 12 studies were used to assess the effect of canola meal inclusion in rainbow trout diets. Overall, inclusion rates of up to 20% did not affect fish growth rate significantly.

Canola meal is increasingly used in aquaculture diets for species such as catfish, carp, tilapia, bass, perch, sea bream, and turbot. Lim, et al. (1997) found that canola meal can be included in channel catfish diets at up to 31% with no negative effects on performance. Van Minh et al. (2013) fed pangasius catfish 30% canola meal with great performance results. Canola meal and rapeseed meal are also commonly included in carp diets, which are frequently vegetable protein based (Cai et al., 2013). Veiverberg et al. (2010) replaced meat and bone meal with canola meal in diets for juvenile grass carp, and found no difference in growth rate or feed conversion. Fillet yield was higher with the canola meal diet than with the control.

Tilapia are commonly given diets containing canola meal. AbdulAziz, et al. (1999) fed up to 25% canola meal in tilapia diets with no effect on performance. Fangfang et al. (2014) demonstrated 30% inclusion in tilapia with no impact on growth performance. In another study, Luo et al. (2012) replaced 75% of the fish meal in diets for Nile tilapia (55% of the diet) with canola meal, and observed no adverse effects on growth performance. While some changes in liver enzyme levels were apparent, the authors concluded that up to 75% of the fish meal can be replaced with canola meal, devoid of any harmful effects. Palatability may need to be taken into account when using canola meal in diets for tilapia. Yigit and Olmez (2012) found that intakes and growth rates were reduced when canola meal was substituted for more than 10% of the fish meal in the diet. Mohammadi et al (2016) likewise found that there were no differences in protein efficiency ratio (PER) and feed efficiency for diets containing up to 40% canola meal, but intakes and weight gains were reduced at both 20 and 40% inclusion levels. This suggests that the diets were nutritionally adequate, but failed to entice the fish to consume them. Feed attractants may be beneficial.

Several species of carp are reared for food throughout the world, and more information on the feeding requirements of these species is being researched. Jiang et al. (2015) determined that grass carp grew well with diets containing 30% canola meal, 20% soybean meal and 10% cottonseed meal, provided the diets were supplemented with lysine and methionine. Fish meal could be totally replaced with a combination of rapeseed meal and chlorella algae (Shi et al., 2017), suggesting that similar results might be expected with canola meal. Habib et al (2018) included phytase or citrate in canola meal diets for rohu, and determined that both options improved the digestibility of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and magnesium, allowing lower supplementation of these minerals. Rohu given canola meal as their protein source had higher growth rates than those given cottonseed meal, rapeseed meal, soybean meal or fish meal (Iqbal et al., 2015).

There were similar findings with other fish species. Glencross (2003) found that canola meal could comprise up to 60% of the diet for red sea bream without detrimental effects on performance. Growth rates were not different from the fish meal control when sunshine bass were given diets with 20% canola meal, although feed conversion ratio was elevated (Webster et al., 2000), Hung and Van Minh (2013) demonstrated that canola meal could replace soybean meal at a level of 20% inclusion in the diets of snakehead fish without any negative impacts on performance.

Canola meal has been successfully used in diets for shrimp and prawns in many parts of the world. In an older study conducted in China, Lim, et al. (1998) found that 15% canola meal in shrimp diets resulted in no significant performance differences, but that 30% and 45% inclusion levels resulted in growth rate and feed intake depression. Since then, knowledge related to the nutrient requirements of these species has been gained.

Research conducted in Mexico (Cruz-Suarez et al., 2001) revealed that canola meal can be incorporated into the diet at 30%, replacing fish meal, soybean meal and wheat, with no alteration in performance of juvenile blue shrimp. In Malaysia, researchers found that canola meal alone could be used to replace 20% of the fish meal without altering performance. The same researchers (Bulbul et al, 2016) determined that a mixture of canola meal and soybean meal (40:60) could be used to fully replace fish meal in diets for kumura shrimp provided an attractant was applied to the meal. Researchers in Australia (Buchanan et al., 1997) fed prawns diets with 0, 20 or 64% canola meal. Results indicated that an enzyme cocktail was required for the higher level of canola meal to produce growth rates equivalent to the control diet without canola meal. Safari et al. (2014) found that ground canola seed was a promising ingredient for crayfish. A non-nutritional concern about using canola meal in shrimp feeds is the negative effect that the fibre has on feed pellet water stability. A pellet binder may be needed to compensate for this effect.

With the high demand for commercially reared fish and crustaceans, there is a shortage of fish oil, and this is expected to increase in the future. Replacement of fish oil with vegetable oils has been widely documented, generally with very little impact on growth performance of fish (Glencross and Turchini, 2011). According to Turchini et al. (2013), canola oil and rapeseed oil are the most widely used vegetable oils in diets for salmon and trout.

Canola oil is highly desired due to its low levels of the linoleic acid (omega 6) fatty acid, helping to maintain an omega 3:omega 6 ratio naturally found in fish. Turchini et al. (2013) replaced up to 90% of the fish oil with canola oil in diets for rainbow trout, with no loss in performance, and only minimal change to the total omega 3:omega 6 ratio in fillets. Similarly, Karayücel, and Dernekbaşi (2010) found no differences in performance when 100% of the supplemental lipid was provided by canola oil in rainbow trout. Another approach to using vegetable oil is to provide it in diets during the growth phase, and then provide diets high in fish oil during the final stages of growth. This allows fish to grow on the less expensive oils, and to deposit tissue lipid more reflective of fish in the final stages of growth. Izquierdo, et al. (2005) provided sea bream with vegetable oil–rich diets, then switched to fish oil for the finishing period. Canola oil fed during the growth phase, followed by fish oil in the finishing phase, allowed the sea bream to develop an ideal fatty acid profile in tissue, whereas fish fed soybean meal in the growth phase deposited significant amounts of linoleic acid that could not be adequately reduced during fish oil feeding in the finisher phase.

Allan, G.L., Parkinson, S., Booth, M.A., Stone, D.A., Rowland, S.J., Frances, J. and Warner-Smith, R., 2000. Replacement of fish meal in diets for Australian silver perch, Bidyanus bidyanus: I. Digestibility of alternative ingredients. Aquaculture, 186(3-4), pp.293-310.

Allan, G.L. and Booth, M.A., 2004. Effects of extrusion processing on digestibility of peas, lupins, canola meal and soybean meal in silver perch
Bidyanus bidyanus (Mitchell) diets. Aquaculture research, 35(10), pp.981- 991.

Anderson, D.M., MacPherson, M.J., Collins, S.A. and MacIsaac, P.F., 2018. Yellow-and brown-seeded canola (Brassica napus), camelina (Camelina
sativa) and Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata) in practical diets for rainbow trout fingerlings. Journal of applied aquaculture, 30(2), pp.187-195.

Burel, C., Boujard, T., Tulli, F. and Kaushik, S.J., 2000. Digestibility of extruded peas, extruded lupin, and rapeseed meal in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) and turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture, 188(3-4), pp.285-298.

Booth, M.A. and Allan, G.L., 2003. Utilization of digestible nitrogen and energy from four agricultural ingredients by juvenile silver perch Bidyanus
bidyanus. Aquaculture nutrition, 9(5), pp.317-326.

Borgeson, T.L., Racz, V.J., Wilkie, D.C., White, L.J. and Drew, M.D., 2006. Effect of replacing fishmeal and oil with simple or complex mixtures of vegetable ingredients in diets fed to Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture nutrition, 12(2), pp.141-149.

Buchanan, J., Sarac, H.Z., Poppi, D. and Cowan, R.T., 1997. Effects of enzyme addition to canola meal in prawn diets. Aquaculture, 151(1-4), pp.29-35.

Bulbul, M., Kader, M.A., Asaduzzaman, M., Ambak, M.A., Chowdhury, A.J.K., Hossain, M.S., Ishikawa, M. and Koshio, S., 2016. Can canola meal and soybean meal be used as major dietary protein sources for kuruma shrimp, Marsupenaeus japonicus?. Aquaculture, 452, pp.194-199.

Bulbul, M., Kader, M.A., Koshio, S., Ishikawa, M. and Yokoyama, S., 2014. Effect of replacing fishmeal with canola meal on growth and nutrient utilization in kuruma shrimp M arsupenaeus japonicus (Bate). Aquaculture research, 45(5), pp.848-858.

Bulbul, M., Kader, M.A., Asaduzzaman, M., Ambak, M.A., Chowdhury, A.J.K. Hossain, M.S., Ishikawa, M. and Koshio, S., 2016. Can canola meal and
soybean meal be used as major dietary protein sources for kuruma shrimp, Marsupenaeus japonicus?. Aquaculture, 452, pp.194-199.

Burel, C., Boujard, T., Tulli, F. and Kaushik, S.J., 2000. Digestibility of extruded peas, extruded lupin, and rapeseed meal in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture, 188(3-4), pp.285-298

Burel, C. and Kaushik, S.J., 2008. Use of rapeseed/canola in diets of aquaculture species. Alternative protein sources in aquaculture diets. New York: Haworth Press, Taylor & Francis Group, pp.343-403.

Burr, G.S., Barrows, F.T., Gaylord, G. and Wolters, W.R., 2011. Apparent digestibility of macro-nutrients and phosphorus in plant-derived ingredients for Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar and Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus. Aquaculture nutrition, 17(5), pp.570-577.

Burr, G.S., Wolters, W.R., Barrows, F.T. and Donkin, A.W., 2013. Evaluation of a canola protein concentrate as a replacement for fishmeal and poultry byproduct meal in a commercial production diet for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). International Aquatic Research, 5(1), p.5.

Cai, C., Song, L., Wang, Y., Wu, P., Ye, Y., Zhang, Z. and Yang, C., 2013. Assessment of the feasibility of including high levels of rapeseed meal and peanut meal in diets of juvenile crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio × Cyprinus carpio): Growth, immunity, intestinal morphology, and microflora. Aquaculture, 410, pp.203-215.

Cheng, Z., Ai, Q., Mai, K., Xu, W., Ma, H., Li, Y. and Zhang, J., 2010. Effects of dietary canola meal on growth performance, digestion and metabolism of Japanese seabass, Lateolabrax japonicus. Aquaculture, 305(1-4), pp.102-108.

Cheng, Z.J. and Hardy, R.W., 2002. Effect of microbial phytase on apparent nutrient digestibility of barley, canola meal, wheat and wheat middlings,
measured in vivo using rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture nutrition, 8(4), pp.271-277.

Collins, S.A., Desai, A.R., Mansfield, G.S., Hill, J.E., Van Kessel, A.G. and Drew, M.D., 2012. The effect of increasing inclusion rates of soybean, pea and canola meals and their protein concentrates on the growth of rainbow trout: concepts in diet formulation and experimental design for ingredient evaluation. Aquaculture, 344, pp.90-99.

Collins, S.A., Øverland, M., Skrede, A. and Drew, M.D., 2013. Effect of plant protein sources on growth rate in salmonids: Meta-analysis of dietary inclusion of soybean, pea and canola/rapeseed meals and protein concentrates. Aquaculture, 400, pp.85-100.

Cruz-Suarez, L.E., Ricque-Marie, D., Tapia-Salazar, M., McCallum, I.M. and Hickling, D., 2001. Assessment of differently processed feed pea (Pisum sativum) meals and canola meal (Brassica sp.) in diets for blue shrimp (Litopenaeus stylirostris). Aquaculture, 196(1-2), pp.87-104.

Dalsgaard, J., Verlhac, V., Hjermitslev, N.H., Ekmann, K.S., Fischer, M., Klausen, M. and Pedersen, P.B., 2012. Effects of exogenous enzymes on apparent nutrient digestibility in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed diets with high inclusion of plant-based protein. Animal feed science and technology, 171(2-4), pp.181-191.

Drew, M.D. 2004. Canola protein concentrate as a feed ingredient for salmonid fish. In Cruz-Suarez, et al. Avances en Nutrición Acuícola VII. Memorias del Symposium Internacional de Nutrición Acuícola.

Drew, M.D. 2009. Use of canola, pea and soy fractions in aquafeeds. Saskatchewan Agriculture Development Fund. Final Project

Erdoğan, F. and Ölmez, M., 2009. The effect of canola meal on growth, somatic indices and body composition of angel fish (Pterophyllum scalare Lichtenstein 1823). Tarim bilimleri dergisi, 15(2), pp.181-187.

Erdogan, F. and Olmez, M., 2010. Digestibility and utilization of canola meal in angel fish (P. scalare Lichtenstein 1823) feeds. Journal of animal and veterinary advances, 9(4), pp.831-836.

Fangfang, T., Qiping, G., Ruojun, W. and Nernberg, L., 2014. Effects of feeding three kinds of rapeseed meal on growth performance of tilapia and the cost performance of three kinds of rapeseed meal. Theory and technology 35,pp.74-80.

Galdioli, E.M., Hayashi, C., Soares, C.M., Furuya, V.R.B. and Faria, A.C.E.A.D., Replacement of soybean meal protein by canola meal protein in” Curimbatá (Prochilodus lineatus V.) fingerling diets. Revista Brasileira de zootecnia, 31(2), pp.552-559.

Galdioli, E.M., Hayashi, C., de Faria, A.C.E.A. and Soares, C.M., 2001. Substituição parcial e total da proteína do farelo de soja pela proteína dos farelos de canola e algodão em dietas para alevinos de piavuçu, Leporinus macrocephalus (Garavello & Britski, 1988). Acta Scientiarum. Animal sciences, 23, pp.841-847.

Gaylord, T.G., Barrows, F.T. and Rawles, S.D., 2008. Apparent digestibility of gross nutrients from feedstuffs in extruded feeds for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Journal of the world aquaculture society, 39(6), pp.827-834.

Gaylord, T.G., Barrows, F.T. and Rawles, S.D., 2010. Apparent amino acid availability from feedstuffs in extruded diets for rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture nutrition, 16(4), pp.400-406.

Glencross, B., Hawkins, W. and Curnow, J., 2003. Evaluation of canola oils as alternative lipid resources in diets for juvenile red seabream, Pagrus auratus. Aquaculture nutrition, 9(5), pp.305-315.

Glencross, B., Hawkins, W. and Curnow, J., 2004a. Nutritional assessment of Australian canola meals. I. Evaluation of canola oil extraction method and meal processing conditions on the digestible value of canola meals fed to the red seabream (Pagrus auratus, Paulin). Aquaculture research, 35(1), pp.15-24.

Glencross, B., Hawkins, W. and Curnow, J., 2004b. Nutritional assessment of Australian canola meals. II. Evaluation of the influence of the canola oil extraction method on the protein value of canola meals fed to the red seabream (Pagrus auratus, Paulin). Aquaculture research, 35(1), pp.25-34.

Habib, R.Z., Afzal, M., Shah, S.Z.H., Fatima, M., Bilal, M. and Hussain, S.M., Potential of Phytase and Citric Acid Treated Canola Meal Based Diet to Enhance the Minerals Digestibility in Labeo rohita Fingerlings. Pakistan journal of zoology, 50(6).

Hajen, W.E., Higgs, D.A., Beames, R.M. and Dosanjh, B.S., 1993. Digestibility of various feedstuffs by post-juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in sea water. 2. Measurement of digestibility. Aquaculture, 112(4), pp.333-348.

Hill, H.A., Trushenski, J.T. and Kohler, C.C., 2013. Utilization of Soluble Canola Protein Concentrate as an Attractant Enhances Production Performance of Sunshine Bass Fed Reduced Fish Meal, Plant-Based Diets. Journal of the world aquaculture society, 44(1), pp.124-132.

Huang, Y., Hu, Y., Xiao, T.Y., HUAN, Z.L., WEN, H., FENG, F.X. and YU, J.B., Influence of dietary canola meal levels on growth and biochemical indices in juvenile Mylopharvngodon piceus. Acta Hydrobiologica sinica, 36(1), pp.41-48.

Hung, L.T. and Van Minh, N. 2013. Use of canola meal in carnivore feed: A case study in snakehead fish (Channa Striata). International Fisheries Symposium, IFS 2013, Pattaya, Thailand

Hussain, S.M., Afzal, M., Nasir, S., Javid, A., Makhdoom, S.M., Jabeen, F., Azmat, H., Hussain, M. and Shah, S.Z.H., 2016. Efficacy of phytase supplementation in improving mineral digestibility in Labeo rohita fingerlings fed on canola meal-based diets. Iranian journal of fisheries sciences, 15(2), pp.645-661.

Iqbal, K.J., Ashraf, M., Qureshi, N.A., Javid, A., Abbas, F., Hafeez-ur-Rehman, M., Rasool, F., Khan, N. and Abbas, S., 2015. Optimizing growth potential of Labeo rohita fingerlings fed on different plant origin feeds. Pakistan journal of zoology, 47(1).

Izquierdo, M.S., Montero, D., Robaina, L., Caballero, M.J., Rosenlund, G. and Ginés, R., 2005. Alterations in fillet fatty acid profile and flesh quality in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) fed vegetable oils for a long term period. Recovery of fatty acid profiles by fish oil feeding. Aquaculture, 250(1-2), pp.431-444.

Jiang, J., Shi, D., Zhou, X.Q., Feng, L., Liu, Y., Jiang, W.D., Wu, P., Tang, L., Wang, Y. and Zhao, Y., 2016. Effects of lysine and methionine supplementation on growth, body composition and digestive function of grass carp (C tenopharyngodon idella) fed plant protein diets using high-level canola meal. Aquaculture nutrition, 22(5), pp.1126-1133.

Karayücel, İ. and Dernekbaşi, S., 2010. Effect of dietary canola oil level on growth, feed utilization, and body composition of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss L.). Israeli journal of aquaculture Bamidgeh, 62(3), pp.155-162.

Lanari, D. and D’Agaro, E., 2005. Alternative plant protein sources in sea bass diets. Italian journal of animal science, 4(4), pp.365-374.

Lim, C., Beames, R.M., Eales, J.G., Prendergast, A.F., McLeese, J.M., Shearer, K.D. and Higgs, D.A., 1997. Nutritive values of low and high fibre canola meals for shrimp (Penaeus vannamei). Aquaculture nutrition, 3(4), pp.269- 279.

Lim, C., Klesius, P.H. and Higgs, D.A., 1998. Substitution of canola meal for soybean meal in diets for channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Journal of the world aquaculture society, 29(2), pp.161-168.

Luo, Z., Liu, C.X. and Wen, H., 2012. Effect of dietary fish meal replacement by canola meal on growth performance and hepatic intermediary metabolism of genetically improved farmed tilapia strain of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, reared in fresh water. Journal of the world aquaculture society, 43(5), pp.670-678.

Mejicanos, G., Sanjayan, N., Kim, I.H. and Nyachoti, C.M., 2016. Recent advances in canola meal utilization in swine nutrition. Journal of animal science and technology, 58(1), pp.7-20 Mohammadi, M., Sarsangi H., Mashaei, N., Rajabipour, F. and , Bitarat, A., Canola substitution in nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus Diets. Journal of cell science and therapy 7,pp. 256-260.

Mwachireya, S.A., Beames, R.M., Higgs, D.A. and Dosanjh, B.S., 2000. Digestibility of canola protein products derived from the physical, enzymatic and chemical processing of commercial canola meal in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) held in fresh water. Aquaculture nutrition, 5. Pp73-82.

Ngo, D.T., Pirozzi, I. and Glencross, B., 2015. Digestibility of canola meals in barramundi (Asian seabass; Lates calcarifer). Aquaculture, 435, pp.442-449.

Ngo, D.T., Wade, N.M., Pirozzi, I. and Glencross, B.D., 2016. Effects of canola meal on growth, feed utilisation, plasma biochemistry, histology
of digestive organs and hepatic gene expression of barramundi (Asian seabass; Lates calcarifer). Aquaculture, 464, pp.95-105.

NRC. 2011. Nutrient requirements of fish and shrimp. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.

Parveen, S., Ahmed, I., Mateen, A., Hameed, M. and Rasool, F., 2012. Substitution of animal protein with plant protein fed to Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala and its effect on growth and carcass composition. Pakistan journall of agricultural research, 49(4), pp.569-575.

Rodrigues Olim, C.P. 2012. Apparent digestibility coefficient of feed ingredients for juvenile meagre(Argyrosomus regius, Asso 1801) M. Sc. Thesis, University of Porto.

Safari, O., Shahsavani, D., Paolucci, M. and Atash, M.M.S., 2014. Screening of selected feedstuffs by sub-adult narrow clawed crayfish, Astacus leptodactylus leptodactylus Eschscholtz, 1823. Aquaculture, 420, pp.211- 218.

Satoh, S., Higgs, D.A., Dosanjh, B.S., Hardy, R.W., Eales, J.G., Deacon, G., Effect of extrusion processing on the nutritive value of canola meal for chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in seawater. Aquaculture nutrition. 4,pp. 115–122

Shi, X., Chen, F., Chen, G.H., Pan, Y.X., Zhu, X.M., Liu, X. and Luo, Z., Fishmeal can be totally replaced by a mixture of rapeseed meal and chlorella meal in diets for crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio). Aquaculture research, 48(11), pp.5481-5489.

Soares, C.M., Hayashi, C., Faria, A.C.E.A. and Furuya, W.M., 2001. Substituição da proteína do farelo de soja pela proteína do farelo de canola em dietas para a tilápia do Nilo (Oreochromis niloticus) na fase de crescimento. Revista Brasileira de zootecnia, 30(4), pp.1172-1177.

Soares, C.M., Hayashi, C., Furuya, V.R.B., Furuya, W.M. and Galdioli, E.M., Substituição parcial e total da proteína do farelo de soja pela proteína do farelo de canola na alimentação de alevinos de piavuçu (Leporinus macrocephalus, L.). Revista Brasileira de zootecnia, 29(1), pp.15-22.

Tibbetts, S.M., Lall, S.P. and Milley, J.E., 2004. Apparent digestibility of common feed ingredients by juvenile haddock, Melanogrammus aeglefinus L. Aquaculture research, 35(7), pp.643-651.

Tibbetts, S.M., Milley, J.E. and Lall, S.P., 2006. Apparent protein and energy digestibility of common and alternative feed ingredients by Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua (Linnaeus, 1758). Aquaculture, 261(4), pp.1314-1327.

Thiessen, D.L., Campbell, G.L. and Adelizi, P.D., 2003. Digestibility and growth performance of juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed with pea and canola products. Aquaculture nutrition, 9(2), pp.67-75.

Turchini, G.M., Moretti, V.M., Hermon, K., Caprino, F., Busetto, M.L., Bellagamba, F., Rankin, T., Keast, R.S.J. and Francis, D.S., 2013. Monola oil versus canola oil as a fish oil replacer in rainbow trout feeds: Effects on growth, fatty acid metabolism and final eating quality. Food chemistry, 141(2), pp.1335-1344.

Umer, K. and Ali, M., 2009. Replacement of fishmeal with blend of canola meal and corn gluten meal, and an attempt to find alternate source of milk fat for rohu (Labeo rohita). Pakistan journal of zoology, 41(6).

Umer, K., Ali, M., Iqbal, R., Latif, A., Naeem, M., Qadir, S., Latif, M., Shaikh, R.S. and Iqbal, F., 2011. Effect of various nutrient combinations on growth and body composition of rohu (Labeo rohita). African journal of biotechnology, 10(62), pp.13605-13609.

Vandenberg, G.W., Scott, S.L., Sarker, P.K., Dallaire, V. and De la Noüe, J., 2011. Encapsulation of microbial phytase: Effects on phosphorus bioavailability in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Animal feed science and technology, 169(3-4), pp.230-243.

Van Minh, N., B. Li, B. Dyck, L. Nernberg and L.T. Hung. 2013. Use of canola meal to replace soybean meal in Pangasius catfish feed. Master thesis study, Nong Lam University. Veiverberg, C.A., Radünz, N., Emanuelli, T., Ferreira, C.C., Maschke, F.S. and dos Santos, A.M., 2010. Feeding grass carp juveniles with plant-protein diets
and forage. Acta scientiarum-Animal sciences, 32(3), pp.247-253.

Viegas, E.M.M., Carneiro, D.J., Urbinati, E.C. and Malheiros, E.B., 2008. Canola meal in the diets of pacu Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg 1887): effects on growth and body composition. Arquivo Brasileiro de medicina veterinária e zootecnia, 60(6), pp.1502-1510.

Webster, C.D., Thompson, K.R., Morgan, A.M., Grisby, E.J. and Gannam, A.L., Use of hempseed meal, poultry by-product meal, and canola meal in practical diets without fish meal for sunshine bass (Morone chrysops× M. saxatilis). Aquaculture, 188(3-4), pp.299-309.

Wu, X.Y., Liu, Y.J., Tian, L.X., Mai, K.S. and Yang, H.J., 2006. Apparent digestibility coefficients of selected feed ingredients for yellowfin seabream, Sparus latus. Journal of the world aquaculture society, 37(3), pp.237-245.

Yigit, N.O., Koca, S.B., Bayrak, H., Dulluc, A. and Diler, I., 2012. Effects of canola meal on growth and digestion of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fry. Turkish journal of veterinary and animal sciences, 36(5), pp.533-538.

Yigit, N.O. and Keser, E., 2016. Effect of cellulase, phytase and pectinase supplementation on growth performance and nutrient digestibility of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum 1792) fry fed diets containing canola meal. Journal of applied ichthyology, 32(5), pp.938- 942.

Yigit, N.O. and Olmez, M., 2009. Canola meal as an alternative protein source in diets for fry of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The Israeli journal of aquaculture – Bamidgeh, 61(1), 35-41.

Zhou, Q.L., Habte-Tsion, H.M., Ge, X., Xie, J., Ren, M., Liu, B., Miao, L. and Pan, L., 2018. Graded replacing fishmeal with canola meal in diets affects growth
and target of rapamycin pathway gene expression of juvenile blunt snout bream, Megalobrama amblycephala. Aquaculture nutrition, 24(1), pp.300- 309.

Zhou, Q.C., Tan, B.P., Mai, K.S. and Liu, Y.J., 2004. Apparent digestibility of selected feed ingredients for juvenile cobia Rachycentron canadum. Aquaculture, 241(1-4), pp.441-451.

Zhou, Q.C. and Yue, Y.R., 2010. Effect of replacing soybean meal with canola meal on growth, feed utilization and haematological indices of juvenile hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus× Oreochromis aureus. Aquaculture research, 41(7), pp.982-990.